Chronology of Events in the Middle East from 1908 to 1966.

1908
3Jul: The Young Turks revolt breaks out, coming to be led by Enver Pasha; Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II is forced to restore the constitution of 1876, entailing the creation of a new parliament, and elections to it (all men over 25 voted for “electors” who in turn chose the delegates); ‘Abd al-Hamid is then deposed (27Apr09), with his brother Mehmet V installed. Policies for the ‘Turkification’ of the Ottoman territories promulgated through 1909, resulting in the creation of societies promoting pan-Arab ideas.

Dec: With the restoration of the Constitution, al-Karmil, the first major Palestinian newspaper, is established in Haifa by Najib Nasir. It is modelled on al-Mufid, the unofficial organ of al-Fatat, the pan-Arabist secret society based in Paris (later Beirut). The newspaper Filastin is established in Jaffa in Jan11 by cousins ‘Isa & Yusuf al-‘Isa.

1909
Tel Aviv is established by Zionist settlers as a twin city to Jaffa.

1911
First international exploitation of oil in Middle East, after British discovery at Masjid-i Sulayman, Persia in 1908: the Anglo-Persian oil company (APOC) is established. Britain controls all of Persia except for the mountainous north (which came under Russian domination, in accordance with a 1907 agreement between Britain and Russia).

16May: first major debate in the Ottoman Parliament on the dangers of Zionism, in the aftermath of al-Fula incident (1910-11) in which Zionists purchased a large tract of land containing a Crusader castle (at ‘Afula) made famous by Salah al-Din’s capture of it. Deputies for Jerusalem (Ruhi al-Khatib and Hafiz Sa‘id ) and Damascus (Shukri al-‘Asali) speak on the threat of Zionism.

5Nov: Libya is annexed by Italy after an invasion; strongest opposition from the Sanusiyya, an Islamic order created in 1837. France & Germany compete for Morocco, which becomes a French protectorate under the Treaty of Fez (30Mar12).

1913
23Jan: Young Turks, principally through the Committee of Union and Progress, claim that there are external threats to the Empire, & suspend the constitution » increased Arab opposition to them.

21Jun: 1st Arab National Congress, held in Paris: all participants are from Greater Syria, except for 2 Iraqis. Congress demands recognition of Arabs as a nation within Ottoman Empire, & autonomy for them (though still stresses loyalty to the Ottoman Empire; only deals with Zionist immigration obliquely). Ottomans respond with persecution: 1st group executed in Beirut (21Aug15) & 21 intellectuals executed in Beirut & Damascus (May16) by Jamal Pasha, the Ottoman military governor.

1914
14Nov: Ottoman Empire enters WWI to oppose Russia & thus allies itself with Germany: but immediately suffer a major defeat at Sarikamis (Dec). British government accepted that Ottoman Empire should not be purposefully held together: Herbert Samuel, in the Cabinet, pressed Chancellor Lloyd George to assist the creation of a Jewish State; independent Jewish State could not be established yet due to overwhelming number of Arabs (657k Muslims, 81k Christians, 60k Jews), but Britain should annex region & encourage Jewish immigration so as to build majority; then grant self-rule. PM Asquith saw it as a way to prevent French domination in the region, esp over Suez. Egypt turned into a British protectorate (16Dec). Invasion of Mesopotamia begins with Basra captured in Nov14; despite siege at Kut (ends Apr16), Baghdad falls in Mar17; Mosul in Nov18.

1915
14Jul: correspondence begins between Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali of Mecca (Hashimite, descended from Muhammad) & Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt (lasts until 30Jan16): Britain promised Arab independence (1st major power acknowledgement of idea of an Arab nation) » the Arab Revolt of Jun1916 against Ottoman rule, under the impression that Britain would support an Arab nation throughout region - especially under Husayn, who recruited an Arab force to engage in the revolt. Assists British in occupation of Palestine (with Sharif Husayn's son Faysal in charge of the Northern Arab Army that moved northwards with the British from the Hijaz and which captured Aqaba in Jul17), Syria & Iraq; declares Arab independence on 10Jun, & is proclaimed King of the Arab countries (2Oct16), but with lack of British support & under increasing threat from central Arabia by ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman Al Sa‘ud (who had been in control of Riyadh since 1902, and with whom the British had signed a treaty in 1915 establishing a protectorate).

1916
9May: Agreement between Mark Sykes & Charles Georges-Picot (for British & French governments, respectively) secretly divides up Fertile Crescent between France & Britain into zones of influence, with Palestine internationalised, though accepts principle of Arab independence (map here). Sykes-Picot agreement is revealed by Trotsky in Nov17, after the Russian revolution; reinforced in Jun1919 Treaty of Versailles which gives provisional independence in the mandate system.

1917
31Oct: letter, dated 2Nov17, from British foreign secretary, Balfour to Lord Rothschild: Britain “views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine”. The population of Palestine at the start of 1918 was 748,000 of whom 59,000 (7.9%) were Jewish, 70,000 Christian (many had emigrated during WWI), 619,000 Muslim (figures calculated in McCarthy, Population of Palestine).
7-9Dec: Gen. Sir Edmund Allenby, commander of the Egyptian expeditionary force, captures Jerusalem from Ottomans for the British. Col. Reginald Storrs is appointed military governor. Remainder of Palestine conquered by Allenby by 1918, with the decisive victory at Megiddo (Sept18).

1918
Mar: Musa Kazim al-Husayni – son of Salim al-Husayni, the late C19 mayor of Jerusalem under the Ottomans – is appointed mayor of Jerusalem by the British military government after his brother Husayn Salim al-Husayni (mayor since 1910) dies.

4Jul: Mehmet Vahideddin becomes sultan of Ottoman Empire, as Mehmet VI, when his brother dies: is the 36th & last sultan.

3Oct: Faysal ibn Husayn takes military control over Damascus with British support. Temporary government, under Sa‘id al-Jaza’iri, is displaced by the British, despite their agreement with Faysal; Jaza’iri is exiled to Haifa. Allenby places territories under authorities of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA): OETA-East (from the Hijaz through to Damascus and Aleppo) is under the temporary Arab government of Faysal; OETA-West (Beirut province and inland regions) is placed under French control with the September 15 Accord of 1919 between the UK & France.

30Oct: Ottoman surrender to allies in WWI: armistice signed at Mudros. Enver Pasha flees to Germany with his supporters (Nov). Allied military administration estd in Istanbul on 8Dec, in cooperation with Mehmet VI. Sections of Turkey also occupied by Greece, Italy, France & Britain. In WWI, Algerian troops had supported allies » France made some efforts to equalise rights with colons, but opposed moves for pol rights. Libya had been conquered into the desert by Italy; some negotiations with the Sanusiyya, but terminated by Italy in 1922 to begin a new policy of colonization.

Nov: Muslim-Christian Association formed in Jaffa; another formed soon after in Jerusalem; & rapidly spread throughout Palestine by 1920.

7Nov: Anglo-French declaration favouring the establishment of indigenous administrations in Iraq and Syria.
North Yemen becomes an independent State under Yahya ibn Muhammad, imam of the Zaydis: claimed right to all historical Yemen, inc what became the Saudi province of Asir & its Najran oasis.

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European territories in Maghrib: attempts by France to settle nationals on the land, but with economic crisis in 1920s & 30s, land moved predominantly to the big corporations, with Arabs acting as hired labourers & immigrants dominating the towns (Algiers, Oran, Tunis, Casablanca). Weakening of economic base in countryside (as across Arab world) brought mass migration into the cities.

1919
British appoint Kamil al-Husayni (the mufti of Jerusalem since 1908) as 1st Grand Mufti of Jerusalem (a British-invented title), extending his religious authority over all Muslims of Palestine; creates a new Muslim hierarchy to replace politics centred on Istanbul.

Jan: Versailles Peace Conference affirms that Arab provinces will not be restored to Ottoman rule.

4Jan: Paris Agreement between Chaim Weizmann & Faysal ibn Husayn (in effective power in Damascus) to set up a future regional federation to enable achievement of Zionist goals in Palestine. Faysal declares support for unrestricted Jewish immigration & a guaranteed Jewish enclave in an independent Arab State of “Syria” (which inc Lebanon, Transjordan, Palestine: “Greater Syria”). Supported by Jerusalem & Jaffa Muslim-Christian assocs.

27Jan-10Feb: 1st Palestine Congress convened in Jerusalem. Considers Palestine to be part of Syria, rejects Balfour Decl & demands Arab independence under Faysal. Assembly convenes 7 times between ’19 & ’28.

Mar: petition from 31 prominent American Jews (inc Henry Morgenthau and Adolph S. Ochs, the publisher of the New York Times) to President Woodrow Wilson, oppg the creation of a Jewish State in Palestine, on the grounds of its undemocratic nature.

9Mar: widespread national revolt begins in Egypt against British rule after nationalist leaders were arrested; suppressed, but leads to creation of nationalist party, the Wafd, under Sa‘d Zaghlul. British report on the revolt (publd Feb21) recommends terminating the Protectorate status of Egypt.

19May: Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), initially with permission of Allies for the restoring of order in Turkey, lands at Samsun with wide range of powers at his disposal. Instead, he begins organising nationalist forces to oppose the sultanate & the Allied occupation > creation of a provisional government, headed by Kemal & based in Ankara, through the National Pact of Jul19 = seen as the beginning of modern Turkish histy.

23May: the beginning of the Kurdish revolt against the British, led by Shaykh Mahmud Berzendji of Sulaymaniyya, who proclaims an independent Kurdistan (Berzendji's revolt continues until 1931).

2July: 1st General Syrian Congress (which included prominent Palestinians, Transjordanians, Lebanese & Syrians) held in Damascus to formulate demands for the Inter-Allied Commission on Syria (the King-Crane Commission): supports the independence of an undivided Syria, & opposed to Zionism. Britain cedes authority over Syria to France after the congress finishes through the September 15 Accord: British troops evacuate from Oct-Nov19; Gen. Henri Gourand becomes High Commissioner. Britain & France agree to pay a monthly subsidy to Faysal's government: this is often withheld over political disputes, leading to a collapse of the Syrian economy. Faysal introduced conscription (Dec19; expanded in May&Jun20) - deeply unpopular, esp due to poor payment.

28Aug: Henry King and Charles Crane, the US members of the Inter-Allied Commission, estd by the Versailles Peace Conference, present their report based on their visit to the region in June-July; they make recommendations to Allies on the status of Syria, Iraq & Palestine; proposes limited Jewish emigration & giving up the idea of a distinct Jewish commonwealth in the region. Their report was kept secret until 1922, and was not fully published until 1947.

1920
Histadrut, the General Federation of Jewish Workers, is set up, with David Ben-Gurion (b.1886, Plonsk, Poland) as its Secretary-General. Remains exclusively Jewish until 1960s, when officially dropped ‘Jewish’ from its name (1966).

Jan: agreement between Faysal and President Clemenceau of France, confirming separate administrations in OETA East & West, in line with the September 15 Accord: seen as endorsing the division of Syria.

Feb: 2 Jewish settlements of Tel Hai & Metullah in N.Palestine are attacked; subsequently, after Nabi Musa festival (4-5Apr), anti-Jewish anti-British riots take place in Jerusalem & Jaffa (46 Jews killed) in support of Faysal. Creation of Haganah (“self-defence”) militia by Jews in response. British commission of inquiry attributes riots to Arab anxiety at Jewish immigration.

March: Faysal elected & crowned king of Greater Syria at 2nd General Syrian Congress in Damascus; assembly proclaims independence from France of Greater Syria; rejects Balfour Declaration & Sykes-Picot agreement.

Apr: With Allies’ cooperation, Mehmet VI dissolves the Ankara parliament (11Apr) & arrests leading nationalists, who in turn assemble a new parliament – the Grand National Assembly – in Ankara (23Apr). Nationalists, led by Kazim Karabekir, were successfully fighting off external invaders, defeating Armenians (Nov20) & regaining Eastern provinces from the Soviet Union (Mar21), & were slowing the Greek advance on Ankara > increasing international acceptance of the Ankara government.

25Apr: San Remo Peace Conference of Allied Powers endorses the French & British mandate over the Levant, with Britain holding the mandate in Palestine, Transjordan & Mesopotamia (renamed Iraq, created out of the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad & Mosul); Syria & Lebanon to France, plus a 25% share in the proceeds of Iraqi oil.

May: 2nd Palestinian Congress is prevented from convening by the British.

June: After Arnold Wilson, the High Commissioner to Iraq, refuses to allow any degree of self-government, an extensive revolt begins, especially among the mid-Euphrates tribes (most Sunni tribes did not take part). 1/3rd of country in rebellion, with rebels controlling Najaf and Karbala. Extensive use of UK air power; approx. 9000 Iraqis killed, 426 British. Wilson replaced by Percy Cox who takes a more conciliatory stance.
1July: Herbert Samuel installed as first High Commissioner to Palestine: civilian administration begins. Jewish emigration had been declining: Samuel sets annual quota of 16,500 per year, but ensures that 3rd Ascent (1919-23) brought 20,000 predominantly socialist Jews; 4th Ascent (1924-8) 33,000, largely from Poland & Russia, due to repressive policies of those governments rather than zeal of Zionism. 1931 census shows that Jewish population had more than tripled in 13 years, growing to 175,000 (but still cf 760,000 Muslims, 91,000 Christians). Jewry favours continued British presence in Palestine so as to allow emigration to continue.

24Jul: French forces led by Gourand retake Damascus by force, after their ultimatum 10 days before was ignored; British support. Britain arrests Palestinian notables who had supported Faysal; Hajj Amin al-Husayni (b.1897; half-brother of Kamil al-Husayni), who had supported Faysal in Damascus, flees Palestine shortly after his return; Musa Kazim al-Husayni, mayor of Jerusalem, is replaced by Raghib al-Nashashibi (Apr; deepened & centralised fissure between Husaynis & Nashashibis)..
Aug: To diminish the possibility of another uprising in Syria, France reorganises the territories under its mandate: the former Christian-dominated autonomous province of Lebanon, previously in Mt Lebanon region, is expanded to include Beirut & Tripoli, & so brings a larger productive base to Christians but reduces their proportion within the State; this becomes known (until 1926) as “Greater Lebanon” (proclaimed by Gourand on 1Sept), & these remain the borders of modern Lebanon. Syria is made up (after some reorganisation in 1925, when Aleppo & Damascus are reunited) of the districts of Damascus, Aleppo and Dayr al-Zawr; & separate governments for ‘Alawite territory (based around Latakia: Jabal Ansariyya) & Jabal al-Druze (based around Suweida). These later territories are joined to Syria in 1936.

10Aug: Treaty of Sèvres signed by Mehmet VI, accepting the Allies’ terms of the San Remo conference. The Ottoman Empire is dissolved, and Turkey has to abandon its claims to the Arab world. An independent Armenia & autonomous Kurdistan are envisioned. Was rejected by nationalists, who now held considerable authority over much of Turkey = Treaty had to be renegotiated in 1922-3, to form the Treaty of Lausanne which replaced the Treaty of Sèvres.

13-19Dec: 3rd Palestinian Congress in Haifa, composed of Muslim-Christian Associations delegates: stresses autonomy of Palestinian Arabs in Palestine, which is a distinct pol entity (leaves unmentioned the earlier proposals for Greater Syria); nominates the Arab Executive Committee (AEC), installing the former mayor of Jerusalem Musa Kazim al-Husayni as leader, & Arif al-Dajani as deputy leader. Congress also demands a halt to Jewish immigration & land acquisition.

1921
22Feb: Reza Khan, a military commander, seizes power in Persia with the country in the grip of an economic crisis and famine; made PM in 1923.

Mar: To dissuade ‘Abdullah, son of Sharif Husayn, from attempting to march on Damascus in support of Faysal, and to head off the revolt in Iraq, Colonial Secretary Churchill of Britain convenes the Cairo conference of Middle East experts to determine how to rule the mandatory territories: separates off Transjordan from Palestine, turning the former into an Emirate for ‘Abdullah to rule over, for a trial six-month period (inaugurated in Apr21); British indicated to ‘Abdullah that responsible rule in Transjordan would encourage them to press for him to be installed as Emir in Damascus too. Churchill offers Iraq to Faysal, where he is made king (23Aug21) of a constitutional monarchy. Every Iraqi minister has a British "adviser", whose approval is required for decisions. Also a reduction in the British garrison in Iraq, replaced by air force squadrons. Faysal overwhelmingly appoints Sunni ex-Ottoman officers, largely from Baghdad, as cabinet members, provincial governors (mutassarif), district administrators (qa’imaqam); only exceptions were a Jewish minister of finance and a Shi‘a minister of education. British census of 1920 had found 56% of population to be Shi‘a. Nuri al-Sa‘id is chief of staff of Iraq, rising to PM in 1929.

Mar: Kamil al-Husayni dies; his half-brother, Hajj Amin al-Husayni is appointed new Mufti of Jerusalem (10May) after being pardoned by Samuel.

Aug: Muslim-Christian delegation sent to London by the 4th Palestine Arab Congress (May-Jun21) in response to riots in Jaffa (May21); demands the creation of a national government in Palestine, with a democratically elected Parliament from country’s Muslims, Christians & Jews. Rejected by Jews, who demand parity of seats in a representative body. Britain rejects both, but accepts AEC as representative of Arab community, in negotiations lasting until Jul22.

Aug-Sept: With Mustafa Kemal as commander-in-chief, Turkish forces finally halt the Greek advance on Ankara, & from then are driven out of Anatolia. Finally retreat to ****** with Aug-Sept22 Turkish offensive.

1922
The Jewish Agency (for Palestine: this part dropped in 1929) formed by the World Zionist Organisation to regulate the yishuv’s relations with the outside world; the WZO’s Jewish National Fund moves to Jerusalem to oversee the buying up of Palestinian lands.

Jan: British appoint Hajj Amin al-Husayni as president of the newly-created Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) in Palestine (to balance Nashashibi power); considerable authority granted to it, including control of the waqf & powers of employment over all Muslim officials throughout Palestine. Establishes a dominant position in Jerusalem, rural Samaria & Gaza.

Mar: Under pressure from the Wafd party, the British give formal independence to Egypt, with constitution & ‘king’ Fu’ad I. However, Britain remains in control of major interests and continues to take a role in determining the composition of the government (eg forcing the dismissal of a Wafdist ministry in 1924).

Apr: meeting of 200 Iraqi Shi‘a notables in Karbala, led by Mahdi al-Khalisi of Kazmiyya: demanded Iraqi independence, half of cabinet and bureaucracy to be Shi‘a, jihad against Wahhabis. British respond by exiling Khalisi and his son (who was allowed back in the 1950s to campaign against communism). 2 leading mujtahids of Karbala move with their followers to Persia in protest.
3Jun: Churchill White Paper (Cmd.1700) confirms that East Palestine is to be recognised as Transjordan, & Balfour Declaration is not appropriate there (Churchill had convinced most Zionists to recognise this).

24July: League of Nations formally ratifies mandate system: Iraq, Palestine & Transjordan to Britain, rest to France. For British mandate over Palestine, Order in Council of 10Aug sets out system of governance; comes into effect on 29Sept23 (so as to be simultaneous with French mandate over Syria).

21Sept: US Congress endorses the Balfour Declaration.

10Oct: Anglo-Iraqi treaty, setting out scope & trajectory of British rule, is signed by King Faysal (ratified by Iraqi Constituent Assembly in Jun24).

Britain offers Palestinians a legislative council, with British+Zionist majority (Palestinians 89% of pop according to British census, itself probably an underestimate) as long as they recognise the Balfour Declaration » rejected by Palestinians, who announce boycott of elections (which thus never happen). Result is that Palestinians fail to acquire a parliamentary forum in which to operate.

1Nov: Turkish Grand National Assembly abolishes the sultanate > Mehmet VI flees to Malta (17Nov) & dies in 1926. Allies accept Ankara government, & begin negotiations that lead to Treaty of Lausanne.

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Both France & Britain fostered indigenous elites in this period to support mandate system & ensure production of raw materials proceeded. Coopting of large landowners (eg cotton growers in Egypt) & tribal leaders (eg Moroccan Berber chiefs) who could draw upon traditional claims to justify their chieftainship. Largely foreign control over secondary schools » educated elite produced; in Egypt & Iraq, became government officers, though not in Palestine, Sudan & Maghrib where colonial authorities retained control. However, existence of an educated elite » expression of nationalism & effective mobilisation. Only in Egypt (w Wafd) & Tunisia (Neo-Destour party, founded by Habib Bourguiba in 1932), however, were effective parties built, enabled by the domination of single great city. British policy was to reach agreement with such groups & give them responsibility & international status, but remain in ultimate control (eg Iraq). France had less room to manoeuvre, with strong settler movements in Maghrib & weak central government in Paris.

1923
May: Britain recognises Transjordan as an "independent constitutional state", with ‘Abdullah ruling under British tutelage.
24Jul: Treaty of Lausanne marks international acceptance of the Turkish republic; delimits borders of Turkey. Replaces Treaty of Sèvres, & abandons considerations of the Armenian and Kurdish questions.

29Oct: Mustafa Kemal declares the creation of the Republic of Turkey. Kemal turns the State away from the Arabs & engages in frontier disputes with Iraq & Syria; abolishes caliphate (Mar24). Capital moved from Istanbul to Ankara; & Kemal takes on the name “Ataturk” (father of the Turks) in 1934.

In Libya, Italian forces, after subduing the 1st nationalist uprising against colonization in Tripoli, take on renewed Sanusi resistance: war continues until 1931, when leader ‘Umar al-Mukhtar, is captured & executed.

1924
9Aug: ‘Abdullah is forced to rely on British airforce help to counter a Wahhabi raid on Bani Sakhr, Jordan, which was aimed at pushing the Hashimites further northwards; also managed to capture Ma'an and Aqaba (1925).

1925
Revolt in Syria begins with alliance between Druze & Damascene nationalists > rebels take control of rural areas & enter Damascus in Oct25; France bomb city for 2 days in revenge (killing 1400 people). Revolt continues until 1927.

Jun: Lord Plumer replaces Herbert Samuel as High Commissioner for Palestine.

12Dec: The Persian Parliament votes to vest the crown in Reza Shah, displacing the Qajar dynasty; Reza Shah takes the pre-Islamic name Pahlavi, to refer to his Persian nature; coronation on 25Apr26. Tribal dress is banned in 1928; the veil is abolished in 1936.

16Dec: League of Nations Council fixes border between Turkey & Iraq, placing the Mosul region in Iraq (against the wishes of the Kurdish population, as determined by a League of Nations Committee).

1926
Jan: ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Sa‘ud proclaimed as King of the Hijaz in the Grand Mosque at Mecca, having taken Hasa (1913), Mecca (1924) & Medina (1925); Hashimites are finally expelled, & Sharif Husayn dies in Amman in 1931. Britain recognises the independence of the Kingdom of the Hijaz and the Sultanate of Najd (together with their dependencies of Asir and Ahsa) in May27, through the Treaty of Jeddah; Yemen, Oman and many eastern seaports are recognised as separate. The US recognised the kingdom in 1931.

Moroccan independence movement suppressed by France, who increasingly dominate the country.

23May: In Lebanon, the 1st constitution, based on that of the French Third Republic, is promulgated after being approved by the “representative council”: Christian-Muslim cooperation is enforced through Art 95 with working majority in the unicameral Parliament (“Chamber of Deputies”) for Christians, who in turn elects the president; Art101 declares the State a republic (taking effect from 1Sept). Charles Dabbas, Greek Orthodox, is elected 1st President by the Chamber (26May).

1927
Municipal elections in Palestine largely won by Nashashibi family (‘the Opposition’, Mu‘arada), under Raghib al-Nashashibi, who were esp strong in Hebron, Galilee, Tiberias, Beisan, Nablus, Jenin & Haifa; & were more conciliatory toward Zionists & received support from them. Also allied to ‘Abdullah in Transjordan.

British strike oil at Kirkuk, N.Iraq, the largest find in the world so far. Its exploitation is transferred to the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929, which built pipelines to Tripoli and Haifa by 1934.
1928
Hasan al-Banna founds Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.

Elections in Syria: nationalists win, & draft new constitution which is pan-Syrianist & non-colonial. France enact a modified constitution in May30.

Jun: Seventh Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem, riven by infighting between Musa Kazim al-Husayni & Raghib al-Nashashibi, in a final attempt to reassert its centrality, authorises these 2 individuals to open negotiations with British High Commissioner & establishes a new 48 member executive (inc 12 Christians); but overtaken by Hajj Amin.

Dec: Sir John Chancellor replaces Lord Plumer as High Commissioner for Palestine.

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Contradictory tendencies in Arab world to Islam. Nationalist revival drew extensively upon Arabic language & history » largely secularist, also due to need to incorporate non-Muslim Arabs » academies of the Arabic language set up in Damascus, Baghdad & Cairo. Great concern with popular education, industrialisation, the emancipation of women (esp in Egypt, Lebanon, Palestine) & attaining an elected constitutional government = aspirations to equality with W.Europe in modernisation. Also incorporation of European legal codes, except in Arabia, with shari‘a reserved for matters of personal status. »» displacement of ‘ulama from centre of society’s life, drawing upon reformism of Muhammad Abduh, whose follower, ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq, wrote on the non-political nature of Islam. But opposing this was the rise of Islam as a form of social morality = superiority of Islamic morality over other forms, which can be reinvigorated & rediscovered - used in this form in the independence movements of the Maghrib. With Muslim Brotherhood, taken to its logical conclusion: return to claim for an Islamic state - most influential in middle sector of society (craftsmen, traders, teachers &c), who had been trained in Arabic.

1929
Aug: dispute between Jews & Arabs of Palestine over holy places: Jews accused Palestinians of hampering ability to pray at the Western Wall through reconstruction of Haram al-Sharif; Palestinians saw a Revisionist demonstration at the Western Wall (14Aug) as an attempt to gain control over it (& which held significance as the place of al-Buraq’s tethering), with rumour of an imminent attack on Haram al-Sharif. Rapidly turns into countrywide riots (23-29Aug): 133 Jews killed (attacks on Jewish quarters in Jerusalem, Safad, Tiberias & esp Hebron, where 64 Jews from the old non-Zionist community were killed) by Arab gangs; 6 Arabs killed by Jewish counter-attack, 110 Arabs killed by police. British organise the Shaw Commission to look into the origins of the disturbances: absolves Hajj Amin of involvement in inciting, & recommends the restriction of Jewish immigration.

1930
17Jun: 3 Palestinians (Fu’ad Hijazi, Muhammad Jamjum & ‘Ata al-Zir) are hanged at Acre for their role in al-Buraq clashes = becomes known as al-Thulatha’ al-Hamra’ (Bloody Tuesday, in poem by Ibrahim Tuqan).

Oct: White Paper by Sidney Webb (as Lord Passfield), the new Colonial Secretary, in the wake of the 1929 riots: decides to restrict Jewish emigration & restrict their land purchases. Protests in US rejuvenate US Zionist movement. However, 1931 letter from PM Ramsey MacDonald to Chaim Weizmann (the ‘Black Letter’) reversed the policy, & this encouraged many Jews to emigrate.
16Nov: Anglo-Iraqi Treaty is ratified, with Nuri al-Sa‘id (PM since 1929; signed by him in Jun30) ensuring its passage through Parliament: formal independence for Iraq (implemented in 1932), under Faysal I & membership of League of Nations (Oct32), but has to allow RAF presence, grant Britain land & resources, & coordinate foreign policy with Britain for 25 years. Pan-Arabist groups emerge to oppose the concessions: al-Ikha al-Wataniyya (National Brotherhood), modelled on Ataturk's nationalism, is led by Rashid ‘Ali al-Kaylani (PM 4 times from 1933 to 1941) & Yasin al-Hashimi, & with strong backing from "the Seven", a group of nationalist army officers, led by the Golden Square (includes Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh, Kamil Shabib); al-Ahali (the Masses) is a liberal socialist grouping. Also Kurdish opposition under Berzendji; but RAF crush this revolt by May31.
1931
Apr: Haganah commanders under Avraham Tehomi break off from Haganah, due to their perception of its defensive strategy. This group is the nucleus of Irgun Zvai Leumi ("National Military Organization", Etzel) who came from 1935 into an alliance with Vladmir Jabotinsky, journalist, & over which he became the supreme commander on 30Apr37, when Tehomi rejoined Haganah. Strongly favoured use of physical force against Arabs and (esp from May39) the British, in order to resist oppression & place all Palestine, inc Transjordan, under Jewish majority rule: ie must colonise both banks of Jordan & ‘transfer’ Arabs out of the region (the Revisionist school).

Ahmad Barzani launches a Kurdish insurgency for independence from Iraq. The revolt continues through 1932, and is finally crushed by a joint Iraqi-Turkish campaign in 1935. Barzani's brother, Mustafa, establishes the Kurdish Democratic Party in exile in Iran in Dec45.
13July: Nablus meeting of nationalists, mostly young, pan-Arabists, based in Nablus & opposed to notables, call a national general strike for Aug; in Nablus strike, some violence against police.
16Dec: Pan-Islamic conference held in Jerusalem, organised by & supporting Hajj Amin. Opens on anniversary of al-Isra’ wal-Mi‘raj, to stress Islamic significance of Jerusalem. Delegations from 22 countries. Affirms sanctity of al-Aqsa & precincts.

1932
Last only modern census in Lebanon. Christian:Muslim = 6:5, which provides the basis for the ‘confessional system’.

The beginnings of international oil exploitation in the Arab Gulf: the Standard Oil Company of California (Socal; from 1944, Arabian American Oil Company, Aramco) makes discoveries in Bahrain; obtains (through the mediation of St John Philby) an exclusive 60 year concession in the Hasa region of the Saudi Arabian Gulf shores (May 33; half of it subsequently sold to the Texas Oil Company) & makes discoveries, firstly at Dhahran (1935) and then much more substantially in eastern Arabia (1938); commercial production began at Dammam.

Jan: 1st National Congress of Arab Youth, in Jaffa, where HQ established (leader from Ramleh): strong criticism of notables’ leadership.

9May: French High Commissioner to Lebanon, Henri Ponsot, suspends the constitution when Shaykh Muhammad al-Jisr (Muslim leader from Tripoli) was about to be elected President, due to failure of majority of Chamber to support either Bishara Khuri or Imil Iddi. Ponsot extends Dabbas’ term for one more year.

2Aug: Formation of 1st modern political party in Palestine: Istiqlal (Independence) is reformed as a political party (was originally a pan-Arab society based in Damascus, estd 1919, and emerging out of al-Fatat society), with strong pan-Islamic ideology & favouring becoming part of Syria; led by ‘Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi from Nablus, Ahmad Hilmi ‘Abd al-Baqi (from Sidon, lived in Nablus; former general inspector of the Islamic Waqf) and members of the Jaffa & Nablus Muslim intelligentsia; opposed to notables’ leadership. Family-based parties later formed: the Husayni family (the Majlisiyyun, council, ie SMC supporters) set up al-Hizb al-Arabi al-Filastini to represent their interests, led by Jamal al-Husayni (Hajj Amin’s cousin) on 27Mar35; the Nashashibi family set up the Hizb al-Difa’ al-Watani (National Defence Party) under Raghib Nashashibi on 4Nov34; the Khalidis set up the Reform (Hizb al-Islah) party in Jenin on 23Jun35, with three "secretaries" as Husyan al-Khalidi, Mahmud Abu Khadra, Shibli al-Jamal. The National Bloc (al-Kutla al-Wataniyya) is estd in Nablus, under ‘Abd al-Latif Salah (5Oct35).

3Oct: independent State of Iraq is formally admitted to League of Nations.

18Sept: ‘Abd al-‘Aziz unifies the territories under his control and proclaims them as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

1933
16 June: Prominent Labour leader, Chaim Arlozorov, who on behalf of Ben-Gurion tried to negotiate emigration of German Jews with German Nazis, assassinated, probably by Revisionists (3 revisionists arrested & charged but not convicted).

Certain Palestinian leaders (inc Musa Alami, Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi, George Antonius) meet Ben-Gurion to find an accommodation, but are unsuccessful. AEC call a general strike in Palestine, against British rule, & continued Jewish immigration & land acquisition. Suppressed by British forces.

8Sept: King Faysal of Iraq dies; succeeded by his son Ghazi. Background is rising popular support for General Bakr Sidqi, who conducted a pogrom in Sumayl that killed 600 Assyrians (Aug); and greater strength for the army (conscription introduced in 1934).

Oct: mass anti-British demonstration in Jaffa, approx 12 Palestinians & 1 policeman killed. Musa Kazim al-Husayni, the former mayor of Jerusalem, is severely injured, & dies five months later.

1934
30Jan: New French High Commissioner to Lebanon, Comte Damien de Martel, appoints Habib al-Sa’ad as President (initially for 1 year; extended to 2).

Oct: Ben-Gurion & Jabotinsky met secretly in London, & agreed to eliminate violence between their movements; though agreement was bitterly contested by their followers.

Dec: Decision to dissolve AEC, as Musa Kazim al-Husayni has died.

1935
Iran becomes the official name of the country that was known as Persia.

Mussolini launches the programme for “demographic colonization” of Libya; 150k settlers estd in Libya by 1939.

Jan: meeting of 500 religious notables in Jerusalem, under Hajj Amin, to respond to the political problems faced; strongly condemns (& passes a fatwa against) those who sell land to Jews, but little influence; shows declining influence of notables.

12Sept: Jabotinsky led followers out of the World Zionist Organization to found rival, New Zionist Organization, after WZO prohibits "independent political actions" by Zionist parties; NZO is based in Vienna.
19/20Nov: Shaykh ‘Izz al-Din al-Qassam, leader of a small guerrilla group, and 3 of his supporters are killed by British forces after the death of a Jewish policeman was attributed to his group; had attempted to spark a peasant uprising from his base at Shaykh Zayd near Jenin. 3000 attend his funeral, and notable leaders attend memorial meetings for him.

1936
With accession of Faruq on the death of Fu’ad (28Apr), formal end of British occupation of Egypt with Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance (26Aug), though Britain to remain in Sinai & Suez for 20 years. Later abolition of system of capitulations & membership of the League of Nations. Similar moves attempted by France in Syria & Lebanon after 45 day general strike in Syria: France-Syrian treaty signed in Sept36, providing for limited Syrian independence with ‘Alawite and Druze territories incorporated into Syria: accepted by Syrian government, who ratified treaty. In Lebanon, similar treaty signed in Nov36. However, these agreements were never ratified by France, whose Popular Front government broke up.

30Jan: Imil Iddi elected President of Lebanon; restores the 1926 Constitution (in 1937), & organises elections for the Chamber of Deputies.

13-5Apr: murder of 2 Jews on the Tulkarm road; Jewish reprisals kill 2 Arabs » escalation of national violence, focused on Jaffa. Call for a national strike, esp from Jaffa leaders, inspired by recent Syria strike against the French = the beginning of the ‘Great Arab Revolt’ (al-Thawra al-‘Arabiyya al-Kubra: 1936-9). National Committees set up in all towns & also in rural areas (19-20Apr), encouraged by Istiqlal & Muslim orgs, pressing for a general strike; also Muslim guerrilla bands, acting largely independently & composed overwhelmingly of peasants, sprang up.

25Apr: The 6 main Palestinian political parties set up the Arab Higher Committee (AHC; al-Lajna al-‘Arabiyya al-‘Uliya) to coordinate struggle against Zionism nationally & to oppose the British, led by Hajj Amin & with Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi as general-secretary. AHC endorses call a General Strike, which lasts until Oct, terminated after calls from neighbouring Arab States for its cessation (poss on request of AHC, as elite was suffering due to the strike). After the Peel Commission report, a Palestinian assassinated Lewis Andrews, acting Nazareth district commissioner (Sept37) » British outlawed the AHC (1Oct37); martial law imposed, enabling military courts to pass the death sentence (the first to be hung is Shaykh Farhan Sa’adi, leader of the followers of Qassam, in Nov37); hundreds of urban notables arrested; Hajj Amin stripped of presidency of SMC, but escapes to Lebanon (where placed under house arrest by France), Syria, Iraq & then Europe (& later supported axis in WWII); 5 other leaders deported to the Seychelles. With absence of urban leadership, revolt resumed in rural Palestine, under largely autonomous rural groups, though larger forces under ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (son of Musa Kazim) & Fawzi al-Din al-Qawuqji (Iraqi/Syrian pan-Arabist, leading volunteer Arab army of Transjordanians, Iraqis & Syrians for the cause of ‘Southern Syria’), who declared himself C-in-C of rebel forces. Rural rebels managed to take control of inland Palestine (inc Nablus, Hebron, Bethlehem, Ramallah, Jerusalem Old City & even parts of Jaffa) for 18 months (peaking in Aug-Sept38). Jews remained relatively untouched, as British were main target, except for massacre in Tiberias (Sept38). The revolt established the Husayni family as dominant with their call for full independence throughout Palestine & the establishment of an Arab state, over the Nashashibis who considered Partition acceptable & began to argue that the strike was fruitless (resigning from AHC in Jul37), esp as Nashashibis collaborated with British (& with Haganah) in crushing revolt in 1938-9. Revolt ended with the killing by a joint Nashashibi-British effort of the last of the guerrilla band leaders, ‘Abd al-Rahim al-Hajj Muhammad, in Mar39. Husaynis launched campaign of intimidation & assassination against Opposition & its supporters (inc Hassan Sidqi al-Dajani, head of family). Arab national consciousness rapidly stirring in Palestine; George Antonius’s The Arab Awakening (1938) as a landmark text, providing histy of Arab nationalism. According to British figures, 5032 Palestinians killed, 14,760 wounded & 50,000 detained (2000 for life sentences, 146 hanged) by counterinsurgency campaign, by British forces & Jewish militias; 5000 houses also demolished in reprisals. 40,000, mostly wealthy, Palestinians fled to neighbouring States.

29Oct: Gen Bakr Sidqi launches a military coup in Iraq, backed by Hikmat Sulayman (who becomes PM), overthrowing government of Yasin al-Hashimi (whom the Seven had withdrawn support from), promising social reform & bringing the Ahali group into government.

************

Land had moved increasingly to Jews in this period. Jewish National Fund bought up land (as well as set up industrial projects &c) on which non-Jews could not work. By early 40s, Jews owned 20% of all cultivated land in Palestine. However, most Jews continued to live in towns.

1937
Apr: Aden, administered as part of British India under the Bombay presidency since 1839, is turned into a British crown colony.

4Jul: Iraq-Iran Frontier Treaty, concluded under strong British pressure due to need for safe oil facilities. Iraq concedes navigation rights to all countries in the Shatt al-Arab waterway, and accepts the median line of the deepest channel as the international boundary (the "thalweg principle"; itself based on the Constantinople Protocol, signed also under British pressure in Nov13) for a 4-mile stretch of the Shatt al-Arab opposite the Abadan oil facility.

7Jul: The Royal (Peel) Commission to Palestine, sent to Palestine by British, proposes partitioning country with Jews receiving Galilee & the coastal plain, Jerusalem & Jaffa remaining British, & the Arab receiving the remaining 80%, which would be incorporated into Transjordan under ‘Abdullah. Recommended ‘transfer’ of up to 225,000 Arabs out of proposed Jewish area, with British force used if necessary. Rejected by the AHC and the Arab National Congress, at the 1st Bludan conference in Syria, of 450 delegates from Arab countries (Sept). However, was accepted by most Jews & the idea of transfer was accepted strongly by Zionist leadership; Ben-Gurion argued that Partition could be 1st step towards occupation of all Palestine, once transfer had taken place.
11Aug: Iraq's military leader Bakr Sidqi is assassinated in Mosul on 11Aug37 after Ahali and nationalist military officers withdraw support on 19Jun37; Sulayman resigns as PM. Jamil al-Midfa’i takes over as PM, but quickly alienates the military.
1938
Feb: Oil is discovered in Kuwait, at the Burgan field; extraction by the US&UK owned Gulf Oil Corporation begins in 1946. Shaykh al-Sabah receives half revenues (from 1951).

9Nov: Commission of Inquiry under Sir John Woodhead declares Peel Commission proposals to be impractical; proposes a much smaller Jewish state (which was rejected by both Zionists & AHC) & a tripartite conference instead.

2Sept: France create an autonomous “Republic of Hatay” out of Alexandretta district, formerly part of Latakia; & give it to Turkey (Jun39).
Dec: The Seven announce a coup in Iraq, and install Nuri al-Sa‘id (a veteran of the Arab revolt; remained close to Britain) as PM. Nuri remained close to the monarchy under Ghazi I (d.Apr39 in a car accident) & Faysal II (4yrs old at succession, under the regency of Prince ‘Abd al-Ilah); and attempted to dissolve the Seven and reestablish civilian control.

1939
After failed London Conference (7Feb-27Mar), Malcolm Macdonald’s (colonial secretary) White Paper puts further restrictions on Jewish immigration into Palestine, amounting to no more than 15,000/year, & restrictions of Jewish land purchasing. Proposes a 10-year transitional period, then the setting up an independent, unitary Palestinian State (to ensure Arab support in WWII). Approved by House of Commons, but rejected by Jews » armed Jewish resistance. Also rejected by AHC & Hajj Amin, despite Nashashibi (& popular) support; Hajj Amin later tries to revive the White Paper when it became clear that the Revolt was not restarting, but to no avail. Jewish population had grown by 160% over past 8 years, to 458,000 (cf 950,000 Muslims, 121,000 Christians).

9000 Palestinians enlist for British army service, with the encouragement of the Nashashibi clan. 14,000 Palestinians join the Arab Legion to assist the Allies. Despite Hajj Amin broadcasting his support for the Nazis on Radio Berlin, no substantial pro-Nazi movement emerged in Palestine.

1940
Mar: The Seven force Nuri al-Sa‘id's resignation; with the agreement of the regent ‘Abd al-Ilah, Rashid ‘Ali is installed as PM of Iraq.
Jun: Abraham Stern founds Lehi (Lohamei Herut Yisrael, ‘Fighters for Israel’s Freedom’, the Stern gang) after dispute with Irgun, seeking Israeli statehood extending up to Euphrates through violence against British. Stern shot by British (1942); leadership passed to Yitzhak Yezernitsky (ie Shamir). Both Irgun & Lehi resented by Haganah, who abducted & interrogated their members, & passed information onto the British.

Italy invades Egypt; creates an alliance with Kaylani's government in Iraq, which also begins secret negotiations with Berlin (Aug40) before being forced out in Jan41 in favour of Taha al-Hashimi who served as a compromise candidate.

Sept: A group calling itself al-Ba‘th al-‘Arabi, aimed at reviving the Arab national spirit & culture, is formed by a group of six in Damascus, taking the name chosen by Zaki al-Arsuzi (a Syrian ‘Alawite). By Jul43, two of the founders, the Damascene schoolteachers Michel ‘Aflaq (a Greek Orthodox Christian) & Salah al-Din al-Bitar (a Sunni) turn this into a political party, without Arsuzi.

1941
Formation of Palmach, elite Jewish military units.

1Apr: Iraqi coup by The Seven, re-installing Rashid ‘Ali al-Kaylani as the head of a government of “National Defence”. Nuri al-Sa‘id and Faysal II flee. At first, Rashid ‘Ali signals intention to adhere to Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, but The Seven refuse the passage of British troops (as required under the Treaty), and articulate pro-Axis positions; also supported by Hajj Amin. Invaded by Britain (2May) with help of Jewish units in May to restore pro-British government. Rashid ‘Ali requests, and fails to obtain, German support; and escapes to Tehran (29May), then Germany (Nov41) & Saudi Arabia (May45). Civil order breaks down in Baghdad (Jun: became known as the Farhud): extensive pogrom against Jews (120-600 killed, 2100 injured) & looting of their property by soldiers. The British ambassador, Kinahan Cornwallis, refused to allow British troops to enter the city until the pogrom was over. Capture & execution of the Golden Square (Sabbagh in 1945); persecution of nationalists under Nuri al-Sa‘id (PM from Oct41) leads to his (& British) deep unpopularity.

4Apr: With Vichy government in France, President Imil Iddi of Lebanon resigns at appointment of Gen. Henri-Fernand Dentz as High Commissioner; Dentz appoints Alfred Naqqash to replace him.

June: invasion of Syria & Lebanon by Britain & Free French forces to remove pro-Vichy governments: armistice signed in Acre on 14Jul.

25Aug: With fears of German invasion from N during its war with Russia & the pro-Axis alignment of Reza Shah, Iran is occupied by Russian & British troops, & the shah is deposed in favour of his son, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (installed on 16Sept).

1941-2: Agreements on independence for Syria, Lebanon (declared on 26Nov by Gen. Georges Catroux, de Gaulle’s delegate general) & Iran. Nuri al-Sa‘id & ‘Abdullah develop idea of unification into the ‘Fertile Crescent’ of Transjordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq & Saudi Arabia, a plan which leads to the creation of the Arab League. Saudi opposition: seen as a plot to increase Hashimite power.

1942
May: Zionist movement makes clearest call for statehood in ‘the Biltmore Programme’, decided upon in Emergency Zionist Conference in New York; pressed for mass immigration & the setting up of a sovereign Jewish ‘commonwealth’ in all parts of Palestine (intimation that this includes Transjordan). Seen as a victory for the Revisionist camp, who rejoined WZO.

July: German advance into Egypt, up to near Alexandria, but checked at the Battle of al-Alamayn; & counter-offensive into Libya, Morocco & Algeria. All Italian settlers evacuated from Libya by end of 1942; Tunisia finally recaptured in May43. British allow formation of Wafd government in Egypt on liberation, to ensure cooperation (which damages Wafd credibility); & promise non-return to Italian rule to Libyans in return for volunteer Sanusi force.

1943
In Syria, elections are held, and Shukri al-Quwatli, head of the National Bloc, becomes president.

21Sept: Elections in Lebanon for a new Chamber of Deputies, which in turn elects Bishara al-Khuri (Maronite) as president; & he appointed Riyad al-Sulh (Sunni) as PM, with political power distributed on a sectarian basis according to the ‘National Pact’ (devised in Mar43), with ratio of deputies according to 1932 census; also stress that Lebanon should cooperate but remain independent from other Arab States. Chamber keeps 1926 Constitution, but alters it to unilaterally end the Mandate (amended on 8Nov). In response, France arrests Khuri, Sulh & other leaders, & imprisons them at Rashayya castle (E. of Sidon) > with strong pressure from Lnese, UK, US & Arab world, France releases prisoners on 22Nov & agrees to independence. French power transferred in Dec, taking full effect on 1Jan44.

Dec: Leadership of Irgun passed to Menachem Begin.

1944
26-28Jun: Republicans under Thomas Dewey promise the formation of Jewish State if they win US elections.
7Oct: Delegations from 5 Arab States meet in Alexandria, adopting the proposal of Nuri al-Sa‘id for a League of Arab States, based on sovereign equality rather than political unification, which is envisioned in the Protocol.

6Nov: Stern Gang assassinates British Minister Resident in the Middle East, Lord Moyne, in Cairo.

1945
22Mar: League of Arab States (Egypt, Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, Transjordan, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, with Musa ‘Alami as Arab States’ chosen representative of the Palestinians) set up with British approval to shift welfare responsibility onto local population & to ensure continuing Arab support. Charter proclaims goal of achieving closer aims between Arab States.

Syrian movements for independence » France reinvade Syria & Lebanon, & bombard Damascus, to opposition of US, UK & Arabs.

Haganah declare a ‘Jewish revolt’ against British; attempts to coordinate underground groups & formation of the "Jewish resistance movement", which starts by attacking an immigrant camp at Atlit (Oct); then attacking railroads & coastal patrol launches (Nov). Support from British Labour Party for Israel, after formed government, in policy statement (written mostly by Hugh Dalton), advocating unrestrained Jewish emigration & ‘encouragement’ of Arabs to leave. However, other tendencies in Bevin’s (Foreign Minister) White Paper, further restricting Jewish immigration & creating an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in Oct, comprising of 6 Brits and 6 Americans, mandated to interview all sides. US encourages mass emigration into Palestine.

Nov: Arab League reconstitutes the AHC, this time as al-Hay’a al-‘Arabiyya al-‘Uliya li-Filastin (Arab Higher Board for Palestine) under the control of Hajj Amin [– Mar46?].

1946
Muslim Brotherhood Association, an off-shoot of al-Banna’s Egyptian group (& still controlled by them), sets up throughout Palestine, drawing upon importance Egyptian Muslims placed on holiness of Palestine: saw Islamic revival as the way to oppose Zionism; drew extensive support from notable class as well as popular support (by 1947, had between 12k & 20k members).

Jan: Kurds in Iran establish the Republic of Mahabad; is terminated in Dec46.
Mar: Independence of Transjordan, under Emir ‘Abdullah; recognised by UK, but troops remain.

Mar: rifts in AHC between Palestinian families » Arab League steps in & reconstitutes the body solely out of the Husayni family & supporters, with Jamal al-Husayni & later Hajj Amin as leader; further attempt to create Palestinian unity by formation of an Arab Higher Executive under Hajj Amin. Zionist attempts to revive the Opposition fail.

Apr: President Harry Truman publicly denounces the British White Paper, calling for unrestricted emigration & land purchasing by Jews in Palestine.

20Apr: Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry issues report; proposes a unified state with equal Arab & Jewish powers; increased immigration. Accepted by US, but rejected by British & Zionist leadership.

28-29May: 1st Arab Summit meeting of 7 Arab States in Ashas (Alexandria), Egypt: discussion of extending independence to all Arab world; & support for Palestinian people.

8Jun: Arab League convenes a 2nd conference at Bludan, Syria: denounces Anglo-American commission, recommends recognising AHC as Palestinians’ representatives.

29Jun: British arrest members of the Jewish Agency executive, after Jewish Resistance Movement blew up bridges linking Palestine with neigbouring States.
22Jul: Irgun blows up the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, where British administrative HQ based, killing 80. Haganah disbands the Jewish Resistance Movement in response.

31Jul: British Deputy PM Herbert Morrison & US Ambassador Henry Grady propose a federal State in Palestine, with separate Arab & Jewish provinces, and with permission for 100,000 Jewish refugees to settle » rejected at Sept roundtable conference in London, with Arab delegates insisting on a unitary State, and the Zionists opposing the federal scheme and the area o fthe Jewish sector. Neither Palestinians nor Zionists attended » no resolution. President Truman indicates support for a Jewish state by 4Oct, but is opposed within his administration by director the State Department's Near East Agency Loy Henderson, Secretary of State George Marshall and Defence Secretary James Forrestal, who cite the importance of oil interests and the purported communist links of many Zionists.

31Dec: French troops fully vacate Syria & Lebanon after Anglo-American pressure » unrestricted independence.

1947
18Feb: After another unsuccessful London Conference which brought together Palestinian & Jewish delegations, British handed Palestine issue over to UN » formation of UN Special Committee on Palestine (11 members) in GAR106 (15May), which recommended a Partition Plan in its report of 31Aug, placing 350,000-450,000 Arabs with 500,000 Jews in Israeli side; 20 Jewish settlements on Arab side; & with Jerusalem & its environs (inc Bethlehem) under international trusteeship. Jews less than a third of total population (1.3m Palestinians, 620,000 Jews), & owned 7% of total amount of land, with 279 Jewish settlements, but allocated 55-60% of land in the Partition Plan, including most fertile land. Accepted by UK (26Sept); AHC announces its rejection of the plan (29Sept); Jewish Agency announces its acceptance (2Oct), followed by US (11Oct) & SU (13Oct). GA voted in favour (GAR181, 29Nov; by 33-13-10); minority proposal (India, Iran, Yugoslavia) to create an independent federal State rejected. Immediately accepted by the yishuv & WZO, but rejected by Hajj Amin al-Husayni, who launched a 3 day general strike (1 Dec) » setting up of National Committees in towns & cities. Britain announces (20Sept) intention to withdraw by 15May48. Arab League resolutions support intervention (Dec).

Apr: First Congress of Arab Ba‘th Party in Damascus. Constitution commits party to “struggle to gather all the Arabs in a single independent state”.

May: Irgun breaks into Acre fortress and releases 41 of its prisoners. After 3 Irgun members are executed (Jul), Irgun hanged 2 British sergeants.

19Jul: The 4500 potential Jewish immigrants (mostly Holocaust survivors) from the Haganah-owned ship, "President Warfield", renamed Exodus 1947 on 17Jul, are forced to depart from Palestine by the British (after the ship docked at Haifa on 18Jul) & are transported back to Europe in prison ships. When the immigrants fail to disembark, Britain transfers them to Hamburg (8Sept) > international protests.
17Nov: Meeting between Golda Myerson (Meir) of the Jewish agency and ‘Abdullah: agree that Transjordan will annex the Arab state formed through the Partition Plan; and that the Arab Legion will not hinder the establishment of the Jewish state. Is relayed to Britain, when Tawfiq Abul Huda (Transjordanian PM) and John Bagot Glubb (commander of the Arab Legion since 1939) meet with Foreign Sec Ernest Bevin in London on 7Feb48.
Dec: Irgun & Lehi begin systematic attacks on the Arab population of West Jerusalem; almost whole Palestinian population expelled by Jan48.
1948
Jan-Feb: Volunteers from other Arab countries (esp Syria) move into Palestine, in the Arab Liberation Army (Jaysh al-Inqadh) under Fawzi al-Qa’uqji, to support attacks on Jewish settlements. Palestinian forces in the Army of the Holy Struggle (Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas) led by ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (d.8Apr48 in battle for Qastel). Arab League transfer support from AHC, which it claims to be unrepresentative, to ALA; absence of coordination between different groups. Arab forces manage to control major roads, destroy Jewish convoys & lay siege to Jewish Jerusalem.

15Jan: The conclusion of the "Portsmouth Treaty" between Iraq and the UK is announced, with the UK removing its military presence from Iraq but retaining a central role in planning through an extension of the 1930 Treaty. Iraq had installed its first Shi‘a PMs (Salih Jabr, Mar47-Jan48; then Muhammad Hasan al-Sadr) to head off protest, but discontent turns into violent protest (the Wathbah). Iraq does not ratify the Treaty in response.
17Jan: In N.Yemen, Imam Yahya is assassinated by opponents, but his son, Ahmad, manages to rally Nn tribes & recapture government.

19-20Mar: US State Department announces withdrawal of support for Partition, reverting to proposal for UN trusteeship, as Jewish forces seen to be losing; decision is taken without President Truman's authorization, and Truman indicates that trusteeship can only be a first step towards partition on 25Mar. Jewish forces are gaining control of the coastal plain & destroying Palestinian villages.

9Apr: Dayr Yassin massacre by Lehi-Irgun joint force: Irgun commander claimed 254 Arabs were killed, though more accurate estimate seems to be 110-140. Haganah engage in an offensive against Palestinian villages and towns, with victories at Qastel (8-9Apr, dominating way to Jerusalem, as part of Operation Nahshon), Tiberias, and Haifa (22Apr). Jewish convoy to Mt Scopus university campus is massacred (13Apr).

6May: British FCO reports 50,000 Palestinian refugees; Haganah claim 240,000 fleeing from ‘Jewish’ area & 150,000 from Arab area. Jewish victories at W.Jerusalem (completed on 30Apr), Jaffa (10-13May) and Safed (11-12May).

14May: David Ben-Gurion proclaims an independent Israel, with himself as Prime Minister & Minister of Defence; Moshe Sharett (b. as Shertok, 1894 in Kherson, Ukraine) as Foreign Minister; Walter Eytan as Director General of the Foreign Ministry. Quick British withdrawal, under pressure from both sides. Rapid recognition of Israel by US, who offers an emergency loan of $100 million, & USSR. Revisionist movements agree to integrate their armed forces into the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF). US Defence Secretary, James Forrestal, urges closer links with Muslim world due to US need for oil. Residents of the 4 Gush Etzion settlements surrender to the Arab irregulars, and approx.50 are murdered.

15May: Various Arab armies - Arab Legion (Transjordan), Egyptian, Lebanese, Iraqi, Syrian - enter Palestine. Arab Legion captures West Bank, inc capture of Jerusalem Old City (largely under control of Jewish forces since April) from 18-28May, and victory over IDF at Latrun on 25May (although IDF secured access to W.Jerusalem via the "Burma road"). Syrian and Iraqi forces cross the Sea of Galilee, but are soon defeated south of Tiberias: Syria at Deganya, Iraqis at Belvoir; these armies then move south into the Jenin region. Egypt's northwards push is halted at Isdud; also makes eastward drive across the northern Negev, and onto Beersheba and Hebron. Acre is captured by IDF (17 May), with majority of Palestinian population expelled.

11Jun: 1st truce begins, lasting until 8 July. Irgun’s Altalena ship brings weapons to Palestine, but Begin refused to hand over weapons to IDF; elite Palmach units of IDF under Yigal Allon attempted to capture weapons by force, killing 14 Irgun men; threat of inter-Jewish warfare. Truce breaks down when Arabs decide not to prolong it beyond 28 days & attack preemptively in South; brings IDF conquest of centre of country (Lydda-Ramle) & Galilee (Nazareth) & creates 100,000 more refugees.

10Jul: Arab League announces the establishment of a temporary Palestinian civilian administration over Arab held-areas of Palestine, cf AHC request for a government » not implemented.

18Jul: 2nd Truce begins, lasting until 15 October. Lausanne Peace talks fail when Israel refuses to repatriate refugees (Sept).

17Sep: UN mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte, murdered by Stern Gang. Successor, Ralph Bunche, was much weaker in demands for Palestinian rights.

22Sep: AHC communiqué announces the establishment of the Government of All Palestine (APG; Hukumat 'Umum Filastin); DoI proclaimed by Hajj Amin to Palestine National Council in Gaza (30Sept-1Oct) on 1Oct, with Hajj Amin as President of the PNC, Ahmad Hilmi ‘Abd al-Baqi as PM, Jamal al-Husayni as Foreign Minister, in the Mandate territory of Palestine, with the flag of the 1916 Arab Revolt. Jerusalem as capital, Gaza as seat of government. Recognised & sponsored by Egypt & Arab League, who sought to forestall ‘Abdullah’s plan to annex West Bank; strongly opposed by Jordan, who organised a much larger rival Palestinian Congress in Amman on 30Sept to support Jordan’s policy in Palestine. APG issued Palestinian passports; but with Egyptian disillusionment, HQ transferred to Cairo in Oct, Hajj Amin confined to Cairo & actions curtailed; many leading members left to work for Amman (eg Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi left to become Jordan's ambassador to Egypt, 1951-5, then a Jordanian cabinet minister). Offices formally cl

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